Historical Glories of the Shudras

   Evidence of Shudra Privilege in Ancient and Medieval India

(Published 3/8/2024)

The common view was that Shudras were oppressed classes in Ancient India. While this may be true to a certain extent in certain time periods of Indian history, it isn’t entirely accurate. Here I will be showing examples of Shudras achieving caste mobility, participation in rites seemingly reserved for the twice born, as well as support from Hindu scriptures for any privilege they may have enjoyed. Maybe these are expectations, but they were too common to brush off aside. Furthermore, this could serve as hope for people of low castes to strive for a better future, as well as for Hinduism to recontextualise itself in this new age.

Shudra’s attaining Kingship

Various dynasties of the common era are of Shudra caste in origin, especially in the Southern part of India. Contrary to what taboos a person might expect, their reign has presided over some of India’s prosperous times. These dynasties tend to start out as humble agrarian communities that would rise higher in rank, having amassed political power. 

In addition, we see that it isn’t unusual for Shudra kings to originate as feudatories of a previous dynasty. Often, these dynasties will later concort a tale to claim their kshatriya status. Of course dynasties ascribing a mythical origin to themselves is not known, and Brahmins would praise the Shudra kings in these inscriptions, and these sycophantic praises are not undeserved. One phenomenon to note is that a lot of famous Shudra ulcers hail from Andhra Pradesh. Andhra Pradesh is known for having a dynamic caste system [10]

Palas

This dynasty ruled the Bengal region from the 8th-12th Century AD. This dynasty was founded by a local ruler named Gopala. The Varna status of the dynasty is varying in the extent texts. Texts like Khalimpur Plate Inscription of Dharmapala or Shoddhala’s Udayasundari Katha imply Palas were kshatriyas. However, other sources like the Buddhist Manjushrimulakalpa (775 AD) calls the Palas “shudra” or “dAsajIvinaH” meaning “servant born”, indicating their low status. Gharnama’s Dharmamangala (16th century) calls them low born as well  [3].

Kakatiyas

They were one of the earliest Shudra rulers of Andhra Pradesh, reigning from the 12th to 14th Century. What is significant about their rule was that they united the Telugu lands under one rule for the first time. Their rule was prosperous and saw a change in the social fabric of the region. The inscriptions of Kakatiyas proudly describe the rulers as Shudras, as in, for example, the following Kakatiya Sanskrit inscription [4]:

“sambhūya tam-nabhi-saroja-madhye caturmukho nākagaNam vidhāya| sva-vaktra-bāhu-ūru-pad-ābjayugmāc- cakara vipra-adhipa-vaišya-šūdrān ıı [3] Caturtha-varnam samabhāvi tatra Kakatya-vamšo bhuvana-eka-nutyah | Prolābhidhāno nrpatir babhūva tasmin mahā-nīti-parah prasiddhah ıı [4]”

“3) Having amassed in the middle of the navel-lotus, the four-faced one having places the the heavenly band, he created from his own mouth, arma, thighs, foot-lotus pair, the wise ones(brahmanas), the regents (adhipa), the vaishyas,and the shudras.

4) There the Kakatiya lineage, the sole triumph of the world, has equality arisen in fourth varna. In that (lineage), “Prola” by name became the lord of men, the ultimate of the great teachings (nIti) and famous. ”

(Hyderabad Archeological Series Inscription 13.34 verses 3-4)

The Kakatiyas were originally feudatories under the Chalukya Empire. Interestingly Kashmiri poet Kalhana claims that the early Chalukhyas were shudras (born from the feet of Vishnu) [16], although other sources claim them to be kshatriyas. The Chalukyas of Badami reigned from the 6th-8th Century AD [17] and after their fall, these warriors of agrarian origin started to take control of the power vacuum in Andhra. 

One of the Most famous monarchs of the Kakatiyas was Queen Rudramadevi, who assumed the throne when her father Ganapatideva, who lacked a suitable male heir, retired. Rudramadevi would go on actively fighting in war and defeating neighboring kingdoms. Under her rule, the social fabric changed, partly with the help of the Lingayat/Veerashaiva movement. For one thing,Rudrammadevi encouraged people to pursue other guilds. In addition, the fact that women in the time were making land grants suggests that women could own property. She also populated the arid Deccan region, giving tax exemptions to anyone who settled there [9]. 

Nayakas

The Nayakas are not one dynasty, but many dynasties that are related. They ruled from the fall of the Kakatiyas in the 14th Century and reigned right through the Vijayanagara period till their end in the 17th Century AD.

Below is a list of prominent Nayaka rulers:

• Musunuri Nayaks

• Pemmasani Nayaks

• Madurai Nayak

• Thanjavur Nayak

• Nayaks of Gingee (Senji)

• Nayakas of Chitradurga

• Nayakas of Keladi

• Nayakas of Kalahasti Nayaks of Kandy

• Nayakas of Shorapur

• Ravella Nayaks

Famous Kings of these dynasties include Keshava Nayaka, Singaya Nayaka, Ganapati Nayaka. 

We know of their Shudra status from a couple of inscriptions. The first if the Akkalpundi Grant of Singaya Nayaka [3]:

 “The Brahmanas and next the Kshatriyas and Vaisyas were produced from the face, arms and the thighs of Iswara and for their support the fourth Varna. That this Varna is purer than the other three is itself evident, for verily this (Shudra) Varna was born along with the river Bhagirathi (the Ganga which sprang from Vishnu's feet - the purifier of the three worlds). The members of this Varna are eagerly attentive to their duties, not wicked, pure-minded and devoid of passion and as such they only bear the burden of protecting the earth by helping those born in the kingly Varna. The cycle of Krita and other Yugas is rolling like the circumference of a wheel, the protectors of the earth are so likewise.” .

Why praise the lowest Varna unless the king that the inscription is dedicated to is of the Fourth Varna. 

Despite their Shudra status, by no means were the Nayakas insignificant rulers. When the Kakatiyas fell, Kapaya and Prlaya Nayakas united the Shudra Jatis and led an army to successfully liberate Warangal from the Islamic forces in 1336 AD [8]. 

The Nayaka reign oversaw developments in areas outside politics. Under their rule Temple architecture flourished, and a new style was developed that combined Dravidian and Islamic architectural styles. The Thirumala Nayakkar Mahal, a palace in Tamil Nadu goes a step further and adds Italian architecture to the blend. This is because the Nayaka ruler hired an Italian architect to work on the palace. In addition to building new temples they revived ones that were destroyed by the Delhi Sultanate. Besides architecture, art also flourished. Under the Nayaka rule a new type of painting style arose, called Tanjore paintings. Tanjore Paintings are characterized by vibrant uses of reds, yellows, golds and often feature religious figures of military events [6].  

Reddi

Their name derives from Telugu “reDu” meaning “king” and was a common title for not only kings, but also chieftains. The Kakatiyas themselves used the title of “Reddi”. The dynasty in question here ruled from the 14th to 15th Century AD. The kingdom was established when Prolaya Vema conquered the coastal Andhra region and set up a capital at Kondaveedu.

From the Koduru Grant of Anavota Reddi, we see that Prolaya Vema, the founder of the dynasty, was a Shudra [3][7]: 

“pAdAravindAt aravindanAbheH Gangeva ghanajIvanashrIH| jAtAbhijAtA shatadhA vibhinnA jAtischaturthI jagatam hitAya|| tasyAm abhUt Prolayavema nAma shrishailasopaNavidhAnashali…”

“From the lotus feet of the Lotus navel one, like the auspiciousness amassed living Ganga, the Fourth Jati, noblest of jatis are divided in hundreds, having adored the universe, in it had become the possessor Prolayavema by name of the stairs of the Shri-shaila. ” 

Though being Shudras, the Reddi rulers were zealous patrons of Hinduism. They restored the Aghara of Brahmins and granted new ones. In addition to restoring destroyed temples,such as the ones in Ahobilam and Srisailam, they built new ones, such as the one in Ahobilam [15].

Reddy rulers oversaw a new flourishing of Telugu and Sanskrit literature. One such erudite of the time was Yerrapragada who helped translate the Mahabharata into Telugu [15]. Indeed the Andhrabharatam is a jewel in Telugu literature after the Andhrabhagavatam. 

Even though Shudras were traditionally denied Sanskrit knowledge, the Reddy kings themselves were excellent scholars of Sanskrit and Telugu. Komati Vema wrote severa Sanskrit works, like Shrinagaradeepika (on Amrutashataka), Saptasati Saratika, Sahitya Chintamani [14].

Misconception of the Sangama Dynasty

Before preceding, let us address the legends that surround the Sangama Dynasty.This dynasty is none other than the founding dynasty of the Vijayanagara Empire.The most famous legend to the origin of the dynasty was that 2 brothers, Bukka and Harihara were captured by the Delhi Sultan and forcibly converted to Islam. However the two returned to Vijayanagara and reconverted to Hinduism and established the empire. 

The idea that Bukka and Harihara come from low origins was derived from the legends that surround them. Robert Sewell records two legends in his book Forgotten Empire Vijayanagar. The first is  a brahmin named Madhava Vidyaranya was treated by Bukka to a meal and Madhava blessed the latter with a prophecy that he will be a king ruling all of Industan (India). Other shepherds found out and started treating Bukka as a king. Bukka later went on conquering all four regions and establishing the dynasty. The second is thatMadhava Vidyaranya founded the city of Vijayanagara after finding a treasure there. After Madhava died the treasure was entrusted to a Kurubha family that would go on to found the dynasty [19][20].

 

In both legends Bukka is recorded as Kurubhas. Kurubhas are a low caste shepherd community in South India, often equated with the Shudra Varna. Interestingly, modern Kurubhas take pride in Bukka and Harihara and celebrate their victories on Dussehra. 

Unfortunately these legends seem to be a fabrication. Such fabrication to give a dynasty a shepherd origin is not known for Andhra, at least according to Rev. Heras. Heras concludes from analysing historical sources that the ancestor of Harhara I (not brother to Bukka) was a Hoysala King [18]. Either way, the fact that people in Andhra would attribute a Shudra origin to one of the world’s greatest dynasties shows that in Andhra Pradesh, the circumstance was that birth caste did not go hand and hand with merit, honour, and respect. 

Before continuing, let us still see what accomplishments were done under the Vijayanagara empire anyway. Under the Vijayanagara’s Sangama Dynasty, we see the start of a golden age. Armies were recruited with elite generals and soldiers [24]. There was active participation in maritime commerce, with even officers being stationed overseas. Travellers to the Vijayanagara Empire then returned to their homeland with marvelous descriptions of the place. One interesting architectural remains from the early days of the empire is an Aqueduct appropriately named “Bukkas Aqueduct”, built around 1380 AD [25]. 

Utpala Dynasty

Now admittedly this is a small dynasty in Kashmir. This dynasty ruled from 9th-11 Century AD. The dynasty’s founder and most greatest ruler is Avantivarman. Kashmir's brief Utpala period saw innovations in water management and construction of new temples. However, after Avantivarman, the dynasty oversaw a period of economic turmoil [21]. 

The low origin of the dynasty is inferred from two sources. The first is a passage in Medieval historian Kalhana’s Rajatarangini. The end of the fourth book refers to the dynasties early family members as:

 “These low-born persons, who knew no restraint in their actions, …gradually emerged from childhood.”  [22]

Of course at first glance this may seem to be an insulting metaphor, but from Abul Fazd Ain-i-Akbari, we can see that the dynasty was truly “low-born”. Specifically when he concludes the list of kings with Surma Varman, he calls the latter “last of the chamar princes” [23]. Chamars are a dalit group of leather tanners in Kashmir and Nepal. The term is pejorative and hence is used in this paper for the last time.  

Tribal Kings

This paper is going to depart from dynasties with Shudra or Dalit origins and focus on Kingdoms who originated from a tribal background. The tribal dynasties are underrated in Indian history, therefore a section dedicated to them is long overdue.

In Orissa, the lives of Tribal communities feature depictions in the vernacular literature. In fact Kalinga or Utkala, ancient names of orisa, are said to be named after the tribes living there. Tribes like the Khonds or Shabaras are featured in works like Sharala Das’ Mahabharata, Vajrayana Siddha’s Charga Poems, or Balarama Das’ Jaganmoha Ramayana. 

In inscriptions in the Eastern India region, the tribal kingdoms were called “Atavika Rajya” or ‘forest kingdom’. There were 18 such foret kingdoms collectively referred to as “ashtadasa-aTavikarAjya”. The Kanasa Copper Plate grant, for example, mentions the king Lokavigraha to be the ruler of all 18 kingdoms. These 18 forest kingdoms are also called the 18 Gondramas, a name possibly related to the Gond/Khond tribe that inhabits the mountainous region (Gond/Khon from a Dravidian word for mountain) [27]. 

Shailodbhavas were a prominent dynasty in Orissa that ruled during the 6th Century AD [29]. According to their origin legend, Kalinga was in anarchy and a man named Pulindasena prayed to Svayambhu (Vishnu) to save the country by providing an able ruler. Hence Svayambhu created a man out of rocks who would find the Shailobhava Dynasty. It is to be noted that “Shailodbhava” means “produced from rock”. Apart from the fact that the myth looks tribal in nature, the name Pulindasena reminds one of the Pulinda tribe, which scholars assume to be Non-Aryan (don’t speak an Indo Aryan Language). Perhaps Pulinda is the Kulinda tribe of the Atavikarajya mentioned in the Ashokan Inscriptions [27]. 

Other tribal kingdoms are the Bhaumas, which may be connected to the Bhuiyan tibe although this identification is flimsy. Another is the Nala kingdom. The Nalas trace their ancestry to some Nishada (mleccha tribe) king named Nala. 

The most interesting example of a tribal kingdom is the Bhanjas, who ruled after the fall of the Naga Dynasty of Padmavati. According to the Bhanja origin story, they hatched from the egg of a peahen [28]. This is interesting because the Austroastiatic tribes of Central India have some version where the ancestors of mankind hatch from an egg, Such a “cosmic egg” motif is found in related Austroasiatic cultures in South East Asia.

Gonds

Of the tribal dynasties, the most well deserving of acclaim is that of the Gonds. The Gond kingdoms include the foremost Garha Mandla, and other smaller principalities like Deogarh or Chandrapur. The latter two had pledged allegiance to the former.  Garha Mandla originated when a King named Jadurai married a Gond princess. The Gond genealogy is kept by his descendant Hirde Shah in a Sanskrit Tablet. [30][31]The Gond kings are first recorded in the AkbarNama.

Let us examine one of the most famous Gond monarchs: Queen Rani Durgavati. She is ironically a princess born in the Chandela Kingdom (also tribal in origin) in 1524 AD. She arose to Queenhood after marrying the Gond king Dilpat Shah. The two would have a son named Vir Narayan. When Dilpat Shah died, Vir Narayan was young so Rani Durgavati took the throne. 

When Bax Bahadur of the Malwa Sultanate attacked the Gond kingdom, he suffered great losses at the hands of Rani Durgavati who, actively in battle, valiantly led a resistance. When Mughal emperor Akbar took over the Malwa Sultanate, he allowed a second attack on Garha Mandla. This time, even though Rani Durgavati valiantly stopped the second invasion, she was injured in battle and subsequently took her life to save her honour [31]. 

Besides being kings, Gonds were also Zamindars, land owners who lease land to tenants. However as a series of wars continued to occur in Gondwana, the tribe members slowly lost the Zaminda status. Gonds however continued to exist as tributaries to larger empires like Mughals or Marathas. Unfortunately, when Maratha Zamindars crept into the region, Gonds were displaced and the forests were converted into cultivation lands [29][30]. Fortunately the Gond kings still have descendants known as Raj Gonds. 

These Gond kings were Hinduised, though most Gonds continued to practise their folk religion. Such diffusion of Hindu ideas occurred when the kings made land grants to Brahmins. In addition to winning battles, they built new temples and forts, such as the Madan Mahal Fort of Raja Madan Shah. Sanskrit learning was not unheard of.

 In addition to the Gond genealogy being recorded in Sanskrit, king Sangrama Shah was an excellent scholar of Sanskrit, who composed the “Rasaratnamala” [32]. 

The evidence of these tribal kingdoms shows that even though they were historically seen as outsiders to mainstream society, they were not necessarily marginalised. The tribal kings would even go on taking the Kashatriya status. The Gond kings’ alone had a great influence on Indian history. So much so that European Maps of India at the time include a kingdom clearly labelled Gondwana. The name Gondwana is so prominent that geologists today name the Southern portion of Pangea, Gondwanaland. 

Marathas

The Maratha Empire is famous for its victories against the Mughal Empire. Their empire had a strong administrative system, and were highly encouraging of agriculture and trade.They also developed a strong navy and army, built forts and knew temples. Lus briefly look at the story of the empire's most famed king: Chatrapati Shivaji [11].

When Shivaji assumed royal power, he faced difficulty to get a coronation for his shudra status. The Shudra status of the Marathas is not something unknown, infact the modern Maratha jati itself is an amalgamation of agrarian groups, like Kunbis and Danghers. But, as much as the Brahmins who opposed the coronation were right in the Shudra heritage of Shivaji, it must be noted though Marathas were in reality a Jati of warriors and farmers [12]. The Bhonsle, the family that Shivaji belonged to, enjoyed a high status under Deccan Sultans or Moghuls [11]. Eventually, after a brahmin tried proving Shvaji’s ancestors with a questionable genealogy, the coronation cpoul take place, but with Puranic mantras. 

Other Lowborn Dynasties

Buddhavarman and Buddharaja are mentioned in the Tsandvolu Inscription as Kondapad-malli [3]. He has the titled “giripashchimasashana “ meaning “lord of the west”. From the phrase “chaturthabijana”, we learn that Buddhavarman, and by extension this family of rulers” were shudra, or members of the fourth varna. 

King Lokanatha was a Karana by caste and built a temple to Anantanarayana [3]. 

Kota kings of Sri Dhanyakataka included Keta II and Bhima II. An inscription (1130 AD) on two pillars on Amaravati mentions them as from the feet of the Creator [26].

“(V. 3.) In that (city) there is a family of powerful kings, enjoying uninterrupted prosperity, protected by the god AmarSsvara, (and) protecting men ; (V. 4.) " Which (family) was born from the pair of feet— worshipped by the crowds of lords of gods, lords of demons, and lords of sages, — of the Creator, the bestower of great bliss." 

The inscriptions portray them as Shiva and Buddha patrons. 

Reception of Shudra Kings

Most people had no qualms with low status kings ruling the land. However not everyone agreed to such prevalence. Various Puranas lament that the Kali Yuga is characterised by Shudra kings, and the Manusmriti 4.61 advises a Brahmin to not stay in a Shudra kingdom [3]. However, before judgement is made about Hinduism as a whole, it must be remembered that the Dharmashastras and early Puranas were compiled in the Gupta Period whereas the aforementioned Shudra kings occurred after the 6th Century AD. Clearly the Shudra kings in the Dharmashastras are not the same as the Shudra kings like the Kakatiyas. After the Mauryas and till the Guptas, foreign people like Greeks, Huns, Kushanas, ruled India. These kings were either treated as fallen Kshatriyas or Shudras. So the Puranas and Dharmasashtras likely referred to these. 

Besides, the word Shudra kingdom can have two meanings. The first is a kingdom ruled by a Shudra, and the second is a kingdom consisting of Shudras. Medhatiti comments on Manusmriti 4.61’s and favours the second interpretation. He seems to relax the prohibition to kingdoms where all seven high functionaries are Shudras. Perhaps Medhatithi did this as he lived between 800-1000 AD, and therefore saw Shudra kingdoms in his time. It must be noted that Manusmriti 2.17-2.21 confines its influence and the four varna concept to Brahmarvarta, or the area between the Himalayas and Vindhya Mountains. Here the ideal system of Kshatriya king is maintained, as well as the ideals of Vedic rituals. All other places outside this region are seen as mleccha or barbaric. Shudra seems to be a term of apathy to the barbaric lands. Since the Shudra kings, who were Shudra as in their original caste, were not as bad as expected, Medhatithi may have relaxed Manu’s prohibition [3] . 

Medhatithi, much like other Brahmins, had no qualms with Shudra kings, so long as the Brahmins were treated well. Indeed despite their low status, the Shudra kings were zealous upholders of the Varnashrama system. They would patronise the Brahmins, giving them land, restoring their temples, etc. In fact, a general saying was that anyone who could lead and protect the people can be a king, not just a Kshatriya.

As for why Shudra kings were even a thing in the first place, it warrants explanation. Perhaps the Bhakti Movement which emphasised transcending birth based caste divisions allowed a motility for the Shudras. Alternatively, since Shudras made up most of the king's army, it wasn’t unusual for kings to promote exceptional Shudras to a position of power. From this elevated status, there was room for them to establish a dynasty. What also needs attention is that a lot of times, the jatis deemed Shudras were in reality people who doubled agriculturists and warriors. Such groups are the Marathas of Maharashtra or Kapus, Reddis, Velamas of Andhra Pradesh. Shudras being in affluent positions, let alone in royal power, was in vogue during the mediaeval era. As we shall see later, scriptures support such caste motility. 

Shaivism and the Tantras.

In terms of religion, Shaivism and the Tantric practices actively oppose the caste based distinctions that plagued the orthodox religion. The fervour of religious inclusivity is evident in the Shaivite and Tantric scriptures permitting Shudras to receive initiation, and for them to be Acharyas (for other shudras only admittedly) [5]. 

One example is an interesting statement in the 12th Century AD Mrigendra Paddhati by Vaktrashamhu [5]:

“srlmatpauskare 'pi brAhmanAh ksatriyA vaisyA sudrAs caiva striyas tathA | jaDAndhabadhirA mUkA dIksyAh *saktipracoditAh” 

“In the lord Paushkara: Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and indeed shudras and women in that manner the fools, blinds, and deafs, and dumb, (all of which) are meditated on Shakti are to be initiated.”

Another is ParAkhya cited by Trilocanasiva in PrAyascittasamuccaya:

“yad uktam srimatpardkhye: kAryA dIkSApi sarveSAm tacchaktividhiyoginAm | trayAnAm api varNAnAm na tu sudrAntyajAtisu | amadyapAs tu ye sudrAh saivAcArakriyA AdarAh | sivabhaktAs ca teSAm sA dlkSA *kAryAn yathA na hlti”

“As has been taught in the ParAkhya: 'Initiation should be done for all who have received the action of [the descent of] his power, for all three caste-classes but not for [ordinary] Sudras and the lowest-born [below them]. One may initiate Sudras, but only those who do not drink alcoholic liquor, who revere the disciplines and rites taught by Siva, and are devoted to Siva themselves”

During the Medieval Era, a new term for high status Shudras arose: “Sat-Shudras”. In regards to Shaivite initiation, impure Shudras (asat-Shudras) are given initiation, but admittedly without contact and less elaborately. 

Remarkably, Shaivite responded to the Brahmanical conception of caste based division by actively declaring that such divisions are without basis [5].

Nityasangraha quotes the Paushkaraparameshwara and says:

“manuSyajAtir ekaiva”

“The One indeed is the jati of Man”

Another quote form the text:

“na jAtir vihitA tatra varnam vApi sitAdikam | yonilingodbhavAh sarve jiva ekah samah sthitah | tatra sarvagato devo drsyate jnAnacaksusA | ajnAna dhvastacittAnAm kusAstravivashAtmanAm | vAkpralApah sthitas teSAm yadi jAtih prayojanam”

“Not the Jati is prescribed nor the initial white colour. All are produced from Yoni and Linga, The soul is situated one and equal. There God is seen as having gone to all by the eye of knowledge.They have situated ignorant rabble, of hateful thought, and of the helplessness of the self of bad-texts, if the involvement of Jati”

Vedajnana Guru in his DikSadarsha quotes the Cintyavishva saying:

“navakhanDesu sarvesu bhAratesu mAyena ca jAtibhedam idam kalpyam anyadesheSu nASti tat tasmAt tat kalpanAmAtram jAtibhedam iti kramam”

“In all nine sections of Bharata, This division by Jati was created by Maya. In other countries that is not there. From that, that division of Jati is a creation without basis , thus is ordered.”

So we can see that in Hinduism, specifically in Saiva Siddhanta, there were efforts to bridge caste division. We see active shudra participation in practices previously reserved for twice-borns. Of course, there was some caste segregation in that students ate with their own caste members, and the prayaschitta for food contamination requirements were different based on caste [5]. 

However, even here Shudras were comparatively better off than before. An Initiated shudra was less contaminated than an uninitiated Vaishya. Other compromises included Aghora (initiation) names for Dvijas to end in “shiva” and for Shudras in “gaNa '' and for women “shakti”. In another rule system Brahmins get Shiva and everyone else gets “gaNa '', Women still get shakti [5].

Such compromise of caste observance and caste inclusivity is not known. Vaishnava scholar Vedanta Deshika of the 13th-14 Century AD believed that the passages in the Mahabharata which mention a good shudra to be considered a Brahmana to be only in terms of respect and not true caste change. Vedanta Deshika emphasises that Vishnu Devotees are to be treated with respect like Brahimns but still have to follow their caste rules, citing how Vidura and low caste Nayanars did the same, with any caste transcendence being exceptional cases. One premise of Vedanta Desika’s argument is that bodily gunas are different from mental gunas, but bodily gunas have no basis as all bodies are a mass of the material elements (is a recent corpse of a Brahmin better than the body of a living Shudra?). Fortunately, others however went beyond Vedanta Deshika’s interpretation of his tradition. We shall see later that caste motility in full form is permitted in Hinduism. 

In Non Siddhantika Shaivite traditions, like Bhairava worshippers, they go beyond mere compromises. In these more liberal traditions, caste is only considered to determine initiation duration. After that, equality.

The Jayadrathayamala’s fourth canto’s Mahalakshmimata goes as far as ordering the Guru to make each caste ingest something impure to forgo all caste notions [5].

“Although there is no division of castes in this greatest Tantra, it is found nonetheless.=, O beautiful-eyed, in the commencement of initiation. [For only] when people have gone through initiation they have no caste at all. [Or rather only then] do they become members of the one ‘caste’ of Shiva. For this reason, in the ViseSadIkSA [the Acharya] must do what I shall now explain. Slender-waisted one, he should initiate the Brahmins by making them drink wine, Kshatryas by [making them drink] urine, Vaishyas by making them drink semen, Shudras [by making them swallow ] faeces, women by making them embrace the body of an initiate.”

Though the practice is disgusting, and quite bad for one's health, the point is that caste should not have any meaning when joining the Tantra.

Another text, Mantrapitha’s Svaccahandatantra reads:

“anenaiva vidhAnena dikSitA ye varanane || brahmanah ksatriyA vaisyAh sudras canye 'thava priye | sarve te samadharmanah sivadharme niyojitah || sarve jaTAdharAh proktA bhasmoddhulitavigrahAh | ekapanktibhujAh sarve samayinas tu varAnane || putrakAnAm bhaved eka sadhakAnAm tathA bhavet | cumbakAnAm bhaved eka na pragjativibhedatah || ekaiva sA smRtA jAtir bhairavIyA sivAvyayA | tantram etat samasritya pragjAtim na hy udlrayet || putrakAnAm sadhakAnAm tatha samayinAm api | pragjatyudIraNAd devi prayascittl bhavet narah ||”

“O lovely faced women. By this way the initiated whatever Brahmins,Kshatrityas, Vaishyas, Shudras, or others as well is of the same dharma, united in the Dharma of Shiva. All are said to be wearing the JaTa and sprinkled with ash. O beautiful faced women, but all Samayinas are eaters in one row. One shall be of the Putrakas, and in that manner shall be of the Sadhakas. One shall be of Cumbhakas, not from the former caste division. Indeed the jati is remembered as Auspicious and Undecaying Bharaviya by the undecaying. Having taken refuge in this tantra, he shall indeed not call out the former-Jati of the Putrakas, Sadhakas, and in that manner Samayins also.O Goddess From calling out the former Jati, the man shall become a (performer) of prayaschitta. ”

Most times the line is drawn at Sacchudras, but in other instances, embrace extended even towards untouchables, though there were some conservatives like KSemendra or Kashmir who thought when Kalki arrived, he’d halt these gross practices. Bhatta Ramakantha, a tantric scholar, passes off a verse that claims a transcended Guru may initiate an untouchable as rhetorical. He notes that Shaktas would cite that verse for initiating untouchables [5]. 

Speaking of Untouchables, in Orissa in the Picamuta, a school’s redactional history, the master Padmabhairava is said to have 14 disciples, which included 2 untouchables.

“76. karalabhairavo nAma tatha ucchuSmabhairavah \ mATangajatisambhutau”

“Named Karalabhairava and in that manner (named) UcchuSmabhairva, the two beings of Matanga Jati”

Even if this is a fabrication, the fact that they would fabricate to include Untouchables shows the Hindu climate at the time as being inclusive [5].

As a result of the Shaivite and Tantric inclusivity, we see Sacchudra Saiva Saiddhantika communities, like Meykantar and Nanacampantar, playing a huge role in the development of the Shaiva Siddhanta Cannon. Tarumapuram (Dharmapuram) and TiruvADuturai, like many MaThas, had ascetics of the Sat-Shudra Varna, a still occurring phenomenon. In the Guhyasiddhi of the 8th Century AD, the Sadhaka is required to learn a Saiva Saiddhantika scripture from the home of Untouchables (anytajAlaya) in order to acquire a female consort for post initiatory observance of the tantra [5]. 

The Bhakti Movement

No movement in the history of Hinduism is as famous as the Bhakti Movement that started in 6th-10 Century AD in South India. This movement emphasised devotion to God as a means for salvation [33] as an alternative to Vedic study; this made the movement inclusive to Shudras and other low born communities. Texts like the Bhagavata Purana are the epitome of the Bhakti Movement. Throughout these movements we see saints and gurus hailing from the lower classes, as well as the idea that caste should be based on qualities and not birth. 

Padma Purana 224.53 says:

“śva-pākam iva nekṣeta loke vipram avaiṣṇavam

vaiṣṇavo varṇo-bāhyo ’pi punāti bhuvana-trayam”

“In the world one should not look at a brāhmaṇa who is not a devotee of Viṣṇu as (one does not look at) a candala. Viṣṇu's devotee, even if he is outside the castes, purifies the three worlds.”

And further the Padma Purana and Haribhakti Vilasa 10.165:

“Na śūdrā bhagavad-bhaktās te tu bhāgavatā matāḥ Sarva-varṇeṣu te śūdrā ye na bhaktā janārdane”

“A devotee should never be considered a śūdra. All the devotees of the Supreme Personality of Godhead should be recognized as bhāgavatas. If one is not a devotee of Lord Kṛṣṇa, however, even if born in a brāhmaṇa, kṣatriya or vaiśya family, he should be considered as a śūdra.”

The Padma Purana also goes on saying:

“śūdraṁ vā bhagavad-bhaktaṁ niṣādaṁ śva-pacaṁ tathā vīkṣate jāti-sāmānyāt sa yāti narakaṁ dhruvam”

“One who considers a devotee of the Supreme Personality of Godhead who was born in a family of śūdras, niṣādas or caṇḍālas to belong to that particular caste certainly goes to hell.”

Maybe these are exaggerations, but the fact of the matter was that Hinduism was becoming more caste inclusive. Before examining scriptural support for caste motility, let us take the time to analyse Bhakti saints who hailed from lower classes. 

Low Caste Saints

Nammalvar

Nammalvar was a Shudra born in Tamil Nadu. According to legend, he is said to have been in a trance to Krishna for the first 16 years of his life Nammalvar wrote the following Tamil poems: Thirviruttaram, Thiruvasariyam, Thiruvaymoli, Periya Thriuvandadi. His poems are said to be the essence of the Vedas. Nammalvar propounded that God is one and he was one of the pioneers of Bhakti movement [37]. 

Thiruppan Alvar

According to legend, Thriuppan Alvar was born as an untouchable in a PaaNa family in Uraiyur. Because of his untouchability, he wasn’t allowed to enter the Srinagaram Temple; consequently, every day he would pray to Lord Ranganatha by the banks of the Kaveri One day Sarnga Muni was walking and hit the meditating untouchable Alvar with a stone to make him move aside. When the Archaka went into the temple, however,he saw Ranganatha bleeding exactly where he had hit the Alvar with the stone. Realising his wrongdoing, Saranga Muni takes the Alvar on his shoulders into the temple for darshan. While being carried into the temple he sang ten beautiful verses [38][39].

Nandanar

Nandanar was not an Alvar but a Nayanar, or the Shaivite version of an Alvar. Nandanatr was born in Merkattachanur in Thanjavur District as an untouchable. Due to his untouchability, however, he would worship the deity in the village temple from a distance, choosing to lead a pious and clean life, in contrast to the rest of his caste members. 

One day, however, he became determined to visit the temples at Thirupunnagur and Chidambaram as a protest to the caste restrictions. At Thirupnnagur, he stood far from the main building but his view of Shiva was obstructed by the Nandi statue. When Thiruppan told Nandi to move, with Lord Shiva saying if Nandi didn’t there would be disaster. Nandi complied [38].

At the second temple, he would only circumambulate around it outside, and began lamenting that he couldn’t have darshan. When Nandanar asks Nataraja for mercy, Shiva appears telling him that after entering a fire he can have darshan. Nandanar while praying entered the fire and emerged as a Muni and entered the temple [38].

Both stories of Thiruppan Alvar and  Nandanar Nayanar show that caste rules are a material construct and shouldn’t obstruct a true devotee of the lord from leading a pious life. 

Namdev

Namdev lived in the 13 Century AD and was a member of the Warkari tradition. He was born a Shudra in Maharashtra. He was an influential person in the Bhakti Movement as his travels had helped bring the Bhakti tradition from the South to the North. He criticised Muslim Fanaticism and Brahmanic idolotry and protested against caste prejudice by embracing the low born. One of which was a contemporary slave girl poetess named Janabai.He wrote many abhanga poetry, some of which were later incorporated into the later Sikh Holy Granth.

Chokhamela 

Chokhamela lived in 13th to 14th Century AD in Maharashtra and was of Mahar Jati, an untouchable caste.However he was of the Warikari Sampradaya.Though he  followed the traditional way of his jati members, it didn’t stop him from leading a clean life.

He protested against animal sacrifices and urged his people to live a pure and pious life.He composed many poems about Lord Vitthal. In his Abhangas, he lamented over his low-position. 

In addition to his lamenting, Chokhamela didn’t hesitate to protest against the ill treatment. When the priests blocked his entry at a temple in Pandharpur, Chokhamela cited all things on earth are free for all castes so entering the temple isn’t defilement.Still being denied access, he ended up building a hut near the temple as a place of worship.

Tukaram

Thukaram was a 17th Century AD Marathi shudra saint who studied the works of Namdev (also shudra) and Jnaneshwar (brahmin) and after forsaking his worldly life began devoting himself to religion. As a devotee of Lord Vitthal (form of Krishna), he was instructed by the Lord in a dream to write religious poetry. As a result he ended up composing thousands of abhangas in Marathi.As a result of his pious activities, he got respect amongst many Brahmins. One Brahmin lady named Bahina Bai followed the saint.In his poems, Tukaram preached inclusivity and criticised the evils of then current society. From his poems, he seems to have a view that is in between Advaita and Dvaita. One of his famous poems he wrote was the Mantra Gita, a translation of Bhagavad Gita with a Bhakti interpretation in abhanga form [34] [35].

Other Brahmins were annoyed. For example, Rameshwar Bhatt, disliking the low caste preacher, complained to the Court to drive Tukaram away. Rameshwar Bhatt later was convinced of Tukaram’s saintliness and became one of his close followers [34][35].

Kanaka Dasa

Kanaka Dasa lived in the 15th-16th Century AD and was part of the Haridasa movement, specifically of Dasakuta.  Born as Timappa in the Kuruba jati, at a young age he took up the Kuruba profession of drum-playing. But because Timappa’s father was the administrator of Bankapura, he was able to receive an education under local Sanskrit scholar Srinivasacharya. Timappa studied Poetry, Prosody, rhetoric, mythology, Mahabharata, Ramayana, and Bhagavad Gita, and he excelled in all of them. Developing a long passion for God, he began singing Bhajans and practicing deep meditations [36].

After Timappa's father died, his father’s rival drove him and his family to poverty. However, one day while digging in the village farm he came across a pot of gold. Instead of spending the gold for himself, Timmappa used the money philanthropically. The people who observed Timappa’s selfless charity called him Kanakappa [36].

Kanakappa’s popularity caught the attention of Emperor Krishnadevaraya who made him the administrator of Bada and Bankapura. Unfortunately Kanakappa lost his wife and son afterwards. From his tremendous loss, he took up asceticism and became known as Kanakadasa [36].

Kanakadasa composed various poetries, all in Kannada, that focused on devotion to God, as well as criticised the caste distinctions of the time. In his works, he also tried to bridge views of Advaita and Dvaita together. Some of the poems of Kanakadasa include: Hari Bhakta Sara, Mohana Tarangini, Calacaritre, Ramadhanyacaritre. In the Ramadhanyacaritre, Kanakadasa shows class conflict using millet and rice. Millet and rice were having a debate on who was better of the two. When they got the attention of Sri Rama, they were imprisoned by the latter. Over the course of their imprisonment, the rice decayed but millet survived, therefore winning the debate. Here, the millet is low caste and rice is high caste. In simple terms, Ramadhanyaca instructs an individual to not have an upper caste superiority complex. In addition to these, he wrote several Kirtanas. Later in life, Kanakadasa spent the rest of his days travelling to various places and meeting various scholars and teachers, such as Vyasaraya Swami [36].

Kanakadasa’s life proved that all devotees of God are equal, and that caste should not be a basis to judge someone, especially in religious matters. According to legend, when Kanaka Dasa was denied temple entry in Udupi, on account of low caste, the idol turned the other way and the wall cracked so the saint could have a darshan of Krishna.This cracked wall became the famous Kanaka Kindi . The idol Krishna faces West, contrary to the norm of idols facing east. Whether the legend is true or not, the point remains that caste impurity is a foolish idea to hold [36]. 

Sharala Das

Sharala Das was a Shudra poet in the 15th Century AD and part of the larger Shudramuni Movement in Orissa. According to legend, Sharala Das was ploughing and singing so well that the Goddess Sharala came to him and blessed him with the ability to write poetry [40].

He wrote the famous Oriya Mahabharata, an original retelling of the great epic, in which he comments against caste and gender prejudice. In one story in his Mahabharata, Jara Shabara was barred from studying with the Kauravas emerges as the victor. Later when he helped Krishna return to Vaikunta, he worshiped the body as Jagannatha as Nilamadhava.In his Vichitra Ramayana and Chandi Purana, he comments against women stereotypes. 

Shudra Munis

The Shudra Muni movement was a cultural Revolt in 15th Century Orissa, by a group of people called Shudramunis who pushed caste equality to transform the society away from Brahmanical Orthodoxy [40].

The Shudramunis came from all walks of life who gave up their original caste distinctions and converted themselves as servant-saints (shudra+muni) of God, changing their appellation to “Dasa” [40].

They emphasised that God can be prayed to in the local language and not Sanskrit, and went as far as translating the Sanskrit texts into Oriya. Their works also ended up repopularizing the Jagannatha cult to the masses. The Shudramunis told the masses to not worship idols, nor fast, nor go on pilgrimages, nor do mantra or Japa, and not even celebrate any sacred day. They simply emphasised pure bhakti without a Brahmin mediator [40].

We see their determination in their protests of the Orthodox Brahmanical religion. At the famous Mukti Mandapa, for example, the Shudramunis Bralarama Dasa and Achyutananda Dasa challenged the orthodox Brahmins by advocating for the Shudras’ right to study the Vedas and Dharmashastras [40]. 

Their works represent a religious revolution. Unlike Purusha Sukta, Achyutananda Dasa in his Gupta Gita had the Brahmins , Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudra were the nose, breath, ears, eyes and whole face, respectively. All four came from a flame. Brahminhood, like the Buddha taught, was based on character.Admittedly the Shudramunis were called Buddhists in disguise, in some cases being exiled or imprisoned. However their impact was nonetheless strong [40]. 

The Shudramunis’ works also served as social commentaries. Specifically, let’s examine Balarama Das’ Lakshmi Purana. In this Oriyan story, Lakshmi leaves Puri and blesses an Untouchable devotee of hers. Jagannatha and Balarama don’t take her back on the grounds of her associating with an untouchable. Taking off her jewellery, Lakshmi leaves the residence and starts to live in an untouchable home. The Jagannatha and Balaram take on disguises of Brahmins to find Lakshmi. Once Lakshmi was found, Jagannatha and Balarama had to concede their views. Lakshmi made them eat the Untouchables’ food and submit to her demands of caste inclusivity and communal caste dining [40].

Shudras with Brahmin Disciples

The Bhakti Movement saw Shudras having disciples of their own, even ones who are Brahmins. Briefly, they will be recounted here. 

A Shudra by the name of Narahari Sarkar  (Vaidya jati) had Brahmins Lokanandacarya, Gaurangadas Ghoshal, and Kaviratna Mishra as his disciples.

Another, Narottama Thakur (Kayastha), taught Brahmins Ganganarayana Chakravarti, Balarama Pujari, Gopiramana Chakravarti, Ramakrishna Acharya, Robi Roy Pujari, Vasanta Roy Dvija, Shankara Bhatta Acharya, Madhusudhana Chakravarti, and Raghudeva Bhattacharya [2].

One of Ramanuja, an influential brahmin scholar who protested against caste discrimination, has a Shudra named Kanchipurna as his guru. According to legend, Ramanuja also left his wife after she was doing a purification bath to remove Kanchipurna’s impurity. 

On the Role of Sanskrit

Krishna Sesha of the 16th century in his Shudracarashiromani, a text that outlines what rights a Shudra has, touches upon this issue . Although he concedes some new rights to Sacchudras (Sat-Shudras), he notes Sanskrit is not permitted even for them  according to Skanda Purana (Prabhasa Khanda chapter 28) [13]. 

However, in reality a mere Puranic prohibition didn’t stop the greatness of Shudras in Sanskrit scholarship. In Medieval Andhra Pradesh, as Scholar Kolluru Suryanarayana writes: “..witnessed the sudras’ study and sometimes composition of Sanskrit works. This was, indeed, an great change.” [1] Suryanarayan explains that it was a great change for shudras as they were now imitating higher classes and seeking respect. Clearly their self-confidence paid off. It must be remembered that the Reddi king Komati Vema himself was a Sanskrit scholar who wrote works like Sapta Saratika. 

One famous Sanskrit scholar of Shudra origin was Ramananda Raya, the governor during the Gajapati Kingdom. Ramananda Raya’s shudra status is well known from Sri Caitanya Caritamrta Madhya Lila Chapter 8.

“[21] Śrī Caitanya Mahāprabhu then inquired whether he was Rāmānanda Rāya, and he replied, “Yes, I am Your very low servant, and I belong to the śūdra community. 

[22]: Śrī Caitanya Mahāprabhu then embraced Śrī Rāmānanda Rāya very firmly. Indeed, both the master and the servant almost lost consciousness due to ecstatic love. 

[23]: Their natural love for each other was awakened in them both, and they embraced and fell to the ground.

[24]: When they embraced each other, ecstatic symptoms — paralysis, perspiration, tears, shivering, paleness and standing up of the bodily hairs — appeared. The word “Kṛṣṇa” came from their mouths falteringly.

[25]: When the stereotyped, ritualistic brāhmaṇas who were following the Vedic principles saw this ecstatic manifestation of love, they were struck with wonder. All these brāhmaṇas began to reflect as follows.

 [26]: The brāhmaṇas thought, “We can see that this sannyāsī has a luster like the effulgence of Brahman, but how is it He is crying upon embracing a śūdra, a member of the fourth caste in the social order?”

36: “You do not fear the Vedic injunctions stating that You should not associate with a śūdra. You were not contemptuous of my touch, although in the Vedas You are forbidden to associate with śūdras.”

Ramananda replied: 

37: “You are the Supreme Personality of Godhead Himself; therefore no one can understand Your purpose. By Your mercy You are touching me, although this is not sanctioned by the Vedas.

Ramananda Raya’s famous Sanskrit work is a beautiful play by the name of  Jagannatha Vallabhi Natakam. Below is Verse 4 of the Opening Chapter: 

“laghu-taralita-kandharam hasita-nava-sundaram gajapati-pratAparudra-hrdayAnugatam anudinam sa-rasam racayati ramananda-raya iti caru  | |4|”

 “The light rocking neck and smiles of beauty new and followed by the heart of Gajapati Prataparudra, daily, with essence, wrote thus the charming Ramananda Raya about” 

It is curious that Chaitanya, said to be God himself, did not condemn Ramananda Raya for learning Sanskrit despite being a Shudra by birth. This is a tangent, but not only did Shudras learn Sanskrit, but Women did as well and would use their knowledge to compose plays. Varadambika PariNaya is a famous play written by the female playwright Tirumalamba.

Even during the Vedic times some Shudras seemed to have known Sanskrit. According to the Vedic texts, the Anushtubh metre belonged to the Shudras. Jaiminiya Brahmana 2.102 :

“Verily Gayatra is Brahmana 

Tristubha is Rajanya

Jagata is Vaishya

Anushtubha is Shudra.

That Gayatri which obtains morning, that is Gayatra indeed. By that Chandas Darbha  Shananiki went to the reverence among the Brahmana personage.

Now That Trishtubh which obtains the Middayis the Trshtubha.By that Chandas Darbha Shaniki went to reverence among the Rajanya Personage.

 

Now that Jagati which obtains the third-part-of-the-day (evening) is indeed the Jagatya. By that Chandas, Darbha Shananiki went to reverence among the Vaishya Personage.

Ashtajnara is Gayatri

Ekadhajnara is Jagati

Speech thus the receptacle of the Yajna-sacred

DvadashajnAra is the anushtubh.

The Anushtubha is the Shudra.

The Anushtubha indeed by that Chandas Darbha Shananiki went to reverence among the shudra personage. These much indeed are the men. ” [53]

There is no record of Prakrit being used in the Anushtubh metre, therefore logically it is assumed that the Shudras were lauding Darbha Shananiki in Sanskrit. 

Curiously, the Mahabharata (and Ramayana) are mainly in the Anushtubh metre. This is because the Mahabharata originated as Bardic poetry. Sutas, not the charioteers but the low caste bards, were the ones reciting the glories of past kings. Not just word for word, but retelling them through their own style. Professor Van Buiten remarked that to him the Mahabharata was a conscious composition done by one or a few poets. It seems that Bardic Sutas were treated as Shudras [43][54]. 

Arthashastra 3.7.29 states

“Sons begotten by a Śūdra on women of higher castes are Āyogava, Kṣatta, and Caṇḍāla; by a Vaiśya, Māgadha, and Vaidehaka; and by a Kṣatriya, Sūta. But men of the names, Sūta and Māgadha, celebrated in the Purāṇas, are quite different and of greater merit than either Brāhmans or Kṣatriyas.—The above kinds of sons are pratiloma, sons begotten by men of lower on women of higher castes, and originate on account of kings violating all dharmas.” []

While the text didn’t say the Sutas are Shudras, it does say that they were born from a Pratiloma marriage (man beget on women of higher class) and therefore low born. Keep in mind that Sutas born from Vashya male on Kshatriya women were bards while Sutas born from Kshatriya males on Brahmin women were charioteers. Either way they were seen as low born. The Amarakosha places all mixed castes in the Shudra varga. Though the Amarakoh may not state it, perhaps this classification is not for Savarinika Anuloma children. By the test of whether the Sutas are eligible for vedic learning, they are automatically Shudras [43] [54]. 

In the Bhagavata Purana 1.4,13, the speaker is addressing a Suta, 

“tat sarvaṁ naḥ samācakṣva pṛṣṭo yad iha kiñcana manye tvāṁ viṣaye vācāṁ snātam anyatra chāndasāt”

“Explain all that to us , the question here which I am thinking you are learned in all matters of discourse except for the Chandas.”

In Vayu Purana 1.26-29:

“26-27. It is the incumbent duty of the Suta, ordained by saintly men of yore to preserve the genealogies of gods, sages and the most glorious kings and the traditions of great men as recorded in (earlier) Itihasas and Puranas by those well- versed in the Vedic lore (or expounders of Brahman) .

28-29. But nowhere is the eligibility of the Suta for the Vedic lore (such as recitation of the Veda etc.) seen (pre- scribed) . “ [55]

Here the Suta is denied Vedic learning, except the Suta here is the son of a Kshatriya man and a Brahmin woman. Perhaps the Vayu Purana, like other texts composed during the time, mixed up the Charioteer and the Bard [43] [54]. 

So since the Sutas are de facto Shudras and nonetheless composed the Mahabharata in Sanskrit, thus in Anushtubh metre, it goes to show that Shudras had the right to Sanskrit.

Shudras right to Yajnas

The main view was that Shudras had no right to the Yajnas. However, this notion took form after the Mauryan Period. Before that, we see evidence of Shudras’ participation in Yajnas as well as scholars and texts that give some Yajna rights to Shudras. 

During the upward movement of Shudras during the Middle Ages, the compilers of the Puranas had no choice but to accommodate the Shudras’ new rights.

Sat-Shudras according to the Skanda Purana:

“..should be lovingly devoted to his wife. He should be clean. He should be eagerly engaged in looking after the welfare of his servants and others. He should regularly perform Śrāddhas etc. He must maintain Iṣṭa and Pūrta rites (Yajñas and services unto the community).

14. Devas become pleased within for repeating the holy names and reciting the Mantra that ends with the word ‘obeisance’ (Namaḥ) when he performs the auspicious rites of Pañcayajña etc.

15. He should not fail to take holy bath, should offer libations, perform Homa without chanting Mantras, perform Brahma Yajña and adoration of guests. These five constitute Pañca Yajñas.

16-17. The Pañcayajña should be performed by women and Śūdras without reciting the Mantras. Pitṛs and Devas are always as much pleased with the service rendered by a chaste lady to her husband as they are pleased by means of the Pañcayajñas. Indeed, all the Devas reside in the body of a chaste woman.”

Some texts don’t give the Shudra the “namaH” mantra. The other thing to note is that Sat-Shudras in the Skanda Purana are forbidden to ponder over Vedic thought [41] and to speak Sanskrit. Of course in reality, many Sat-Shudras did quite the opposite, mainly in regards to speaking Sanskrit. 

The Shudras’ use of the word “namaH” is even older, going to the pre Mauryan period. Gautama Dharmasutra 10.64-65 dictates:

“64. If permission has been given to him, he may use the exclamation namaḥ (adoration) as his Mantra.

65. Some (declare), that he himself may offer the Pākayajñas.”[42]

Besides Vedic texts feature passages regarding major Yajnas that can only make sense if Shudras had the right to attend the sacrifices [43]. 

Shatapatha Brahmana1.1.4.11-12 

“11. He then calls the Havishkṛt (preparer of the sacrificial food), 'Havishkṛt, come hither! Havishkṛt, come hither!' The Havishkṛt no doubt is speech, so that he thereby frees speech from restraint. And speech, moreover, represents sacrifice, so that he thereby again calls the sacrifice to him. 12. Now there are four different forms of this call, viz. 'come hither (ehi)!' in the case of a Brāhman; 'approach (āgahi)!' and 'hasten hither (ādrava)!' in the case of a Vaiśya and a member of the military caste (rājanyabandhu); and 'run hither (ādhāva)!' in that of a Śūdra. On this occasion he uses the call that belongs to a Brāhman, because that one is best adapted for a sacrifice, and is besides the most gentle:. let him therefore say, 'come hither (ehi)!' ” 

So Shudras could prepare the sacrificial food and bring it to the Yajna, thus evidence for their active participation in a Yajna. In the Somayaga the Shudras though couldn’t drink the milk during Payovrata, they drank whey as a substitute. The fact that Shudras are mentioned, even if it means giving them a special restriction, also suggests participation in Yajnas. 

Some Vedic scholars during the Pre Chrisitan Era were also advocating for the Shudras’ right to sacrifice. 

According to Jaimini’s Purva Mimamsa Sutra (6.1.27) ancient Mimamsa scholar Badari did advocate for the Shudras right to Yajna on grounds of no prohibition in Vedas. Of course Jaimini refutes Badari’s view later on in the text [45]. What is to be noted is that Badari’s views weren’t fringe in that his opinion was representative of a legitimate school of thought [44]. That some people maintained that Shudras could do yajnas is recorded in Bharadvaja Shrauta Sutra 5.2.8:

“Vidyate carthurasya varNasya agnyAdheyam iti eke na vidyata iti aparam”

“The Fourth Caste’s establishment of the fire is recognized thus is one, it is not recognized thus the other”[46].

Some texts are more explicit in giving Shudras right to do Yajna. The Apasthambha Shrauta Sutra 5.14.1 mentions:

 “yo brahmaNo rAjanyo vaishyaH shudro vA-sura iva bahupuSTaH syAt tasya gRhAdAhRtyAdadhyAt puShtikAmasya” 

“Whatever the Brahmana, rajanya, Vaisya, or Shudra who possibly is well-off like a god, that one who desires prosperity from his house having brought (the fire) may place it” [43]

Mahabharata Shanti Parva Chapter 188 declares:

“The whole world at first consisted of Brahmanas. Created (equal) by Brahman, men have, in consequence of their acts, become distributed into different orders. ……these Brahmanas possessing the attribute of Passion,--became Kshatriyas. Those Brahmanas again who, …. possessed of both the attributes of Goodness and Passion, and took to the professions of cattle-rearing and agriculture, became Vaisyas. Those Brahmanas again …… wedded to the attribute of Darkness, became Sudras. …... All the four orders, therefore, have always the right to the performance of all pious duties and of sacrifices. ” [50]

Not only does this show caste based on qualities and not birth, but it has a subtle implication of inherent Brahminness that could be unleashed. Such successive origin of caste is not unique to the Mahabharata, and passages like these have a lot of potential to uplift Shudras who deserve access to Vedic study. In any case, we see that between the Mauryan and Gupta period, the Shudras’ right to Yajnas was one of the dominant view points. 

Unfortunately, there is hymn in the Taitireya Samhita of the Yajurveda (TS. 7.1.1) that seems to prohibit the right of a shudra to a yajna. 

“From his feet he meted out the Ekavinça Stoma. After it the Anustubh metre [5] was created, the Vairaja Saman, of men the Çudra, of cattle the horse. Therefore the two, the horse and the Çudra, are dependent on others. Therefore the Çudra is not fit for the sacrifice, for he was not created after any gods. Therefore they depend on their feet, for they were created from the feet”

Before going further, it must be pointed out that Shatapatha Brahmana 14.4.25 directly assigns Pushan as the God of the Shudras, and in the Jaiminiya Brahmana 1.68-69, he is assigned the Anushtubh metre and Vemaspati as his god. Therefore this should reverse the prohibition found in the Taitireya Samhita.

However, more importantly Mahabhashya commenter Kaiyata of Kashmir clarifies that the prohibition in the Samhita applies only to the Agnihotra sacrifice and not to other 5 Great Sacrifices (Brahma, Deva, Bhuta, Pitra, Manushya). Without the Puranic interpretation, at the Shudra’s face value right to the 5 Great Sacrifices would  also allow him Brahmavidya or Vedic Study (aka Brahma Yajna) [43]. The later texts, like Dharmasashtras and Puranas limit the Vedic study aspect to only Puranas and Itihasas. 

In addition to limiting the prohibition to larger sacrifices like Agnihotra or Somayaga, which if recalled the Shudra could participate in as evidenced in Shatapatha Brahmana, the prohibition didn’t apply to all Shudras.

Just like the concept of Sat-Shudra and Asat-Shudra of the Medieval times, the pre-Christian era saw pure and impure classes of Shudras: Anirvasita and Nirvasita. (Unlike the Sat vs Asat, the Nirvasita and Anirvasita are a sign of degradation of the Shudra, according to Ambedkar).

In the Mahabhashya Patanjali comments on Panini’s Ashtadhyaya 2.4.10 which says “shUdraNam anirvasitAnAm”

“aniravasitānām iti ucyate . kutaḥ aniravasitānām . āryāvartāt aniravasitānām . kaḥ punaḥ āryāvartaḥ . prāg ādarśāt pratyak kālakavanāt dakṣiṇena himavantam uttareṇa pāriyātram . yadi evam kiṣkindhagandikam śakayavanam śauryakrauñcam iti na sidhyati . evam tarhi āryanivāsāt aniravasitānām . kaḥ punaḥ āryanivāsaḥ . grāmaḥ ghoṣaḥ nagaram saṃvāhaḥ iti . evam api ye ete mahāntaḥ saṃstyāyāḥ teṣu abhyantarāḥ caṇḍālāḥ mr̥tapāḥ ca vasanti tatra caṇḍālamr̥tapāḥ iti na sidhyati . evam tarhi yājñāt karmaṇaḥ aniravasitānām . evam api takṣāyaskāram rajakatantuvāyam iti na sidhyati . evam tarhi pātrāt aniravasitānām . yaiḥ bhukte pātram saṃskāreṇa śudhyati te aniravasitāḥ . yaiḥ bhukte saṃskāreṇa api na śudhyati te niravasitāḥ” [47]

“It is thus called “of the aniravasatas”. Whence“of the aniravasatas”? (that) of the aniravasatas is from Aryavarta. Again, what is Aryavarta? Ideally [it is the region] from the East to the West [the region between ] from the Kalaka Forest by the south and Himalayas by the north. If indeed the Kishkinda-gandika, the forest of Shakaya thus it doesn’t set fit, indeed then from the abode of the nobles is of the Aniravasatas. 

Again who is the arynirvasa?  The village, ghosha, town, and the market place thus?Also indeed those which these great vicinities of chandalas and mrtapahs inside those (places) live, there indeed the chandalas and mrtapasa thus it does not set fit?. 

Indeed then the karmas from the yajna is [the right] of the anirvasatas. Also indeed, Indeed then the carpenter and ironmaker and a washerman and a weaver this it does not set. Indeed then from the port/vessel of the anirvasitas. Those By which in the enjoyed the vessel is cleaned by the samskara, they are the anirvasitas. 

Those by which in the enjoyed vessel is not cleaned by samskara, they are niravasitas.”

The prohibition of Taitireya Samhita 7.1.1. Only applies to the Nirvasita Shudras, not the Anirvasita Shudras. 

Such relaxations of prohibitions are not unheard of even in later literature. For example, during the Medieval Era, shudras began worshipping the Shaligram Shilas (Ammonite fossils that symbolise Vishnu). It was once held that Shudras and women couldn’t worship those stones, but the prevalence of Shudras and Women conducting such worship prompted the Puranic writers to relax the prohibition [2] to allow Sat-Shudras (and chaste women) to worship [34].

Hence Skanda Purana 1.243 says:

“Sacchūdra (Paijavana) said: 46-47. O holy Brāhmaṇa, O most excellent one among those conversant with the Vedas, O Brāhmaṇa expert in all the scriptural texts, it is heard that women, Śūdras and others are prohibited from the worship of Śāligrāma, as in the case of myself. Then why do you say (that I can worship)? If so, tell me the procedure of the worship. Gālava said: 48. O Dāsa showing respect, understand that the prohibition is in regard to Asacchūdra. As for women, the prohibition does not apply to chaste ones.” [51].

Mediaeval scholars also held the view that liberal verses that contradict the strict injunctions in Smritis apply to Sat-Shudras. Unfortunately Vedic study and Sanskrit were explicitly prohibited to SatShudras as well. From a religious perspective, more religious hermeneutics needs to be done to revere the Puranic prohibition. 

Austerities 

The Uttara Khanda of Ramayana is harshly criticised for the scene of Rama killing Shambuka, a shudra, for doing Tapas, an act said to be forbidden to Shudras in the Treta Yuga [not Kali Yuga though]. If the hermeneutical principle that Shrutis take priority over Smriti, then the message of the Shambhuka scene can be overturned. 

Shatapatha Brahmana 13.6.2.10 declares:

“For the priesthood he seizes a Brâhmana, for the Brâhmana is the priesthood: he thus joins priesthood to priesthood 2;--for the nobility he seizes a Râganya, for the Râganya is the nobility: he thus joins nobility to nobility;--for the Maruts (he seizes) a Vaisya, for the Maruts are the clans (peasants): he thus joins peasantry to peasantry; for (religious) toil (he seizes) a Sûdra, for the Sûdra is toil (tapas): he thus joins toil to toil (tapas);--according to their particular form he thus supplies these divinities with victims, and, thus supplied, they supply him with all his objects of desire”

Pre Colonial Scholars on Shudras’ right to Vedas

The consensus during Post Vedic period, prior to European Colonisation, was that Shudras have no right to Vedic learning or the Vedic Mantras [Tantric and Puranic Mantras were okay]. From an appendix to the Maitri Upanishad (7.8), Shudras that know of the vedas was a phenomenon, but it was not looked upon positively [49]. However some scholars begged to differ in opinion. 

There seems to have been an association between Shudras the Vajasaneyi Shakha. This is evident from some Smritis like Kurma Purana or Shudrakamalakara which mention the phrase “shudrAH vAjasaneyinaH” Some explain it as that a Brahmin should follow the Vajsaneyi Shakha’s Grihyasutra for a Shudra and recite the mantra on his behalf. However other, albeit later, texts suggest this to be Shudras’ right to participate in Vedic study.

For example the Samskara Mayuka declares:

“Atra ca ‘shUdrAH vAjasaneyinaH iti vasiSThavAkyAt yAni teSAM karmaNi tAni kAtIyasUtrAnusAreNa kAryANIti”

“Here ‘Shudras are Vajasaneyinas’ is thus from Vasishta’s speech, whatever is in their Karma, those by the Katiya Sutra’s accordance are their works this.” [52]

Evidence that Shudras were permitted for vedic learning is also inferred from the Mahabharata:

In Mahabharata Sambhavna Parva, it’s mentioned that King Vali had Sage Dirghatamas beget children upon his wife, but

“Thus addressed, the Rishi endued with great energy,expressed his willingness. Thereupon king Vali sent hiswife Sudeshna unto him. But the queen knowing that the latter was blind and old went not unto him, she sent unto him her nurse. And upon that Sudra woman the virtuous Rishi of passions under full control begat eleven children of whom Kakshivat was the eldest. And beholding those eleven sons with Kakshivat as the eldest, who had studied all the Vedas and who like Rishis were utterers of Brahma and were possessed of great power, king Vali one day asked the Rishi saying,“ [48]

He was treated like a Brahmana as he was Sage Dirghatamas’ son, however according to Smriti rules, children of Anulona marriages get their father’s caste except for Sons by shudra women.

Infact the Vasishta Dharmasutra 18.9-10 declare

“9. (The son of a Brāhmaṇa and) of a Śūdra woman (is) a Pāraśava.

10. They declare that the condition of a Pāraśava is that of one who, though living, is (as impure) as a corpse.”

Thus Kakshivat would be Shudra or worse by birth, yet he was given the chance to study the Vedas. Of course in reality Kakshivant was the expounder of some of the Rig Vedic hymns, like RV 1.125.1. The fact that someone who is meant to be considered like a corpse according to Post Vedic texts is a mantradraSTR (seer of the mantras) not only proves that Shudras prohibition to the Vedic study is inherently not a Vedic injunction, but that the Shudra could undergo Vedic study. This is a theoretical speculation of course; reality is that the traditional Shudras would more often not given access to Vedic learning. The reference to Kakshivant is only useful when doing hermeneutics for religious reasons and not for academia. 

A Particular Cases of Caste Motility        

Komatis

The Komatis are Jati in Andhra Pradesh. Their story is unique in that they demonstrate an instance of the caste politics in historical India, as well as the theme of caste motility. Originally branded as Shudras, they now are treated officially as Vaishyas and thus would make them the only Telugu speaking Vaishya community. Let’s analyse their history [56]. 

The Komatis were a mercantile trading Jati, living the life that one would expect of a Vaishya. According to the Vasavi Purana, a Medieval Telugu text sacred to the Komatis, the current jati members descend from people who immolated themselves into a fire to uphold the honour of Vasavi Pramaeshwari, a Komati woman who refused to marry the king. It was from this Purana that the Komati members would consider themselves as Vaishyas. 

However, despite living the life of a Vaishya, the rest of the society, mainly the Niyogi Brahmins, considered them as Shudra in status. During the 19th Century AD, the Komatis wanted to officially elevate their religious status to a Vaishya and began adopting the Sastric practices to do so. The Vaidiki Brahmins, the officiating brahman jati for the Komatis, had no qualms with such an elevation. After all, prior to the 19th Century, most Komatis were conducting the Upanayana in Telugu, with only a few rich ones being able to do it in Sanskrit. Around 1825, a mixture of Telugu and Sanskrit was observed in the thread ceremonies. It goes without saying that the Vaidiki Brahmins were lenient in their interpretations of the Dharmashastras . However, the conflict soon started, mainly in Masulipatnam [56]. 

The Niyogi Brahmins who controlled the Mahanad of Masulipatnam were more strict in their approach to the Dharmashastras and relented at the Komatis’ attempt to gain the Vaishya status [56]. It is tempting to argue a religious motive for their opposition, but the fact of the matter was that the Niyogis opposition seems to be rooted in politics. This is seen in the fact that Niyogis would hire untouchables to deliberately disrupt any Komati sacred thread ceremonies [56]. For Brahmins who are seen to have a “strict” interpretation of the Dharmashastras, why would they associate with Untouchables at all? If religious preservation of caste was the motive they might as well have done the disruptions themselves. Clearly religion wasn’t the motivation. It seems that the elevation of the Komatis posed a threat to the high status of the Niyogi brahmins due to the competition that would arise [56]. 

This conflict grew so intense that it was taken to the British Magistrate. At the court the battle became a matter of religion. Vaidika Brahmins argued that not only were the Komatis widely seen as Vaishyas, but there was nothing in the Vedas against the ongoing Non-Sanskritic Upanayana ceremonies and that they may as well start doing them in Sanskrit [57].

Niyogis would argue against the Komatis by portraying them as unrepresentative of the true Vaishya caste. Niyogis claimed that though Komatis did call themselves Vaishyas and did the above practices, they can’t be true Vaishyas as they aren’t descendant from the original Vaishyas of the Satya,Treta, and Dwapara Yugas; the Puranas deem Vaishyas extinct in the Kali Yuga. Niyogis then said that even if they were descendants of the original Vaishyas, they performed Upanayana incorrectly, such as doing it around marriage and not at the right age [56]. 

Besides being a battle of religious hermeneutics, there seems to be personalised tension. The Niyogis claimed that the Vaidika Brahmins were unread in the Dharmashastras and accused them of being liberal solely because they depend on the fees paid by the Komatis for their ceremonies. Vaidikas in turn accused the Niyogis of acting in revenge because they lost the marriage fees given to a few Niyogis by the Komatis. The court claimed that they could not take sides in such disputes and tried stopping them by ordering Komatis to just not do Sastric ceremonies, an order that the Komatis effortlessly overlooked [56]. It must also be pointed out that the Vaidika Brahmins liberal view was the dominant stance in the last two decades of the 19th Century. At the start of the 20th Century, Komatis were doing Sastric marriage ceremonies as alternatives to the traditional women and eventually got the government to finally grant them Vaishya status in the 1901 census. The Komatis would go on to found Southern India Vysia Association [56]. 

From this series of events, few things can be concluded. First was that a person’s caste was not an official designation, rather a generalised opinion of the others. The other is that religious fervour was not necessarily the dominant force in halting caste mobility, rather pride and sociopolitical privilege. The final thing to note is that caste motility was possible in India, albeit very difficult (again not impossible). 

Boyas 

The Boyas were said to be a tribal community.that later became a caste. They are attested as early as the midieval period, during the reign of the Chalukhyas, whom also have them land grants..These groups live in the Deccan region where their village names end in “boya”. In Telugu the word Boya means “savage”. However, despite this name they are huntsmen and warriors. Some subgroups also had agricultural professions. That they were once tribal could be evident from the fact that they call themselves as Nishada, which was a tribal population in the Vedic age mentioned in Vedic, Epic,and Puranic texts [57].

However, some Boyas attained Brahmin status, evidenced by an eastern Chalukya charter dated to 668-9 AD. In this charter, it is mentioned that a Brahmans colony was founded in the town of Reguru. Furthermore, there were 70 Brahmin beneficiaries, out of which 41 were Boyas. These Boyas, though likely of tribal origin, took up Brahmin names and gotras. For example, we have a record of a man named Vinayasharma, who was a Keshavaboya but belonged to the Bharadvaja Gotra. Other Hotta’s included Kashyapas, Kanva, Gautama, amongst others. Like their non-Boya counterparts, Boya Brahmins received many land grants from the kings, but unlike them they seem to have received a greater amount of grants.[57]. 

Other records show that some Boya Brahmins were temple priests. These were called Koyila-Boya or Kovila-Blya. The prefrix Koyila or Kovila mean “temple” in Tamil, and evidence of such a class of priests indicated that Boyas had their own Boya priests, distinct from a (Non Boya) Brahmana. The distinction is more evident in the fact that Myasa-Boyas don’t consume meat or alcohol and don’t require an outside Brahmin for their rituals. By contrast, the Uru-Boyas do consume meat and alcohol and call in an outside Brahmin to officiate their rituals. Furthermore, Boya priests propitiate the village goddesses and sacrifice sheep or buffalo, a practice considered not a part of Brahmanical Hinduism. Admittedly, there is not much to support the claim that Boya Brahmins were a part of the same Brahmanical society as the modern Brahmins are [57]. 

This suggests that Boyas priests, who were to be distinguished from the Brahmin, later were accepted as Brahmins on account of their role as intermediaries to the divine. 

Not only that, these Boya Brahmins were not just Brahmins in name, but also in conduct. The Koneki grant says that Vidusarman was accomplished in the Brahmanas, Sutras, Mantras, and Tantras. His father Mahasena Sharman was a Shrotriya or one who knows the Vedas and does related Vedic practices [57]. 

Unfortunately, Boya Brahmins no longer exist and modern Boyas require a Brahmin to officiate their rituals. This is likely due to the invasion of the Pallavas into the Chalukya borderlands in 720 AD. The Chalukhyas gave land grants to Boyas, which helped their status, so that they acted as a buffer to the hostile Pallavas. Once the Pallavas invaded the kingdom, there was no need to patronise the tribe-turned-caste Boyas and thus they lost status [57]. 

What should be taken away is that, under the right atmosphere, people were willing to accept others by qualities. Boya priests would be the equivalent of a Brahmin the 4- fold Varna system and thus they were recognised as Brahmins, especially when they started acting like one. What this also shows is that caste motility was, in large part, a matter of the dynamics of economic and political privilege, not necessarily religious dogma.  

Scriptural Evidence for Caste Motility

The foremost scripture that places emphasis on caste by qualities and not by birth is the Bhagavad Gita. 

The Bhagavad Gita 18.41 declares:

“brāhmaṇa-kṣatriya-viśāḿ śūdrāṇāḿ ca paran-tapa karmāṇi pravibhaktāni svabhāva-prabhavair guṇaiḥ”

“O enemy-slayer, the karmas (actions) of Bhramana, Kshatriya, Vaishya, and Shudras are divided by the qualities arising from the inherent nature.”

In other words, some people are naturally hard workers, others are naturally inclined to academia. By these natural inclinations, caste should be assigned, not birth.  Some might argue that qualities arise from birth determined by past karma, therefore caste by qualities are same as caste by birth. Vedanta Deshika would likely hold this view (that one gets respect if he acts like a Brahmin but is not truly a brahmin). However, not only the examples of the Shudra saints and the Shudra kings prove otherwise, but the Bhagavata Purana says otherwise

Bhagavata Purana 7.11.35 declares:

“yasya yal lakṣaṇaṁ proktaṁ puṁso varṇābhivyañjakam yad anyatrāpi dṛśyeta tat tenaiva vinirdiśet”

“Whoever has whatever aforementioned quality, that person’s Varna-classifying, which is seen elsewhere, he shall declare that (varNa) by that (quality)”

Similarly Mahabharata Vana Parva 211 has this:

“When a man endowed with the sattwa quality, is influenced by worldliness, he suffers misery; but he hates worldliness, when he realises its full significance. And then a feeling of indifference to worldly affairs begins to influence him. And then his pride decreases, and uprightness becomes more prominent, and his conflicting moral sentiments are reconciled. And then self-restraint in any matter becomes unnecessary. A man, O Brahmana, may be born in the Sudra caste, but if he is possessed of good qualities, he may attain the state of Vaisya and similarly that of a Kshatriya, and if he is steadfast in rectitude, he may even become a Brahmana. ”

So whether from a religious point of view that God ordained caste by qualities or from a historical point of view that caste by quality school of thought was not a fringe thought, what is certain is that Hinduism as a whole allows caste motility. 

Conclusion

In any case, it has been shown that caste motility was possible and not unusual in Pre Colonial India, and that there is religious sanction for caste motility. The other takeaway is that the Shudras in many time periods of Indian history enjoyed a high status and commended respect from Dvijas. 

Furthermore, that caste discrimination has no basis when it comes to spirituality is also proven. Furthermore the right of the Shudra to Yajnas, Tapas, and other Religious practices traditionally thought to be reserved for Dvijas is also proven. In fact, that caste discrimination found in Smritis is also proven, especially by the lives of Shudra saints like Tukaram or Kanakadasa.

What is required for the religious person who wants to do hermeneutics to grant Shudras more rights than he is given is to focus on the Shudras’ right for Vedic study or Sanskrit. The latter is easier to do, because of the plethora of Shudras who were Sanskrit scholars.

Citations:

1. https://www.jstor.org/stable/44158635

2. https://www.jstor.org/stable/44155510 

3. https://www.jstor.org/stable/44138596

4. https://archive.org/details/KeJb_a-corpus-of-inscriptions-in-the-telingana-districts-of-h.-e.-h-the-nizams-domini/page/97/mode/2up?view=theater 

5. https://archive.org/details/GenesisAndDevelopmentOfTantra/page/n299/mode/2up?view=theater (pg 294 for shaivite initiations)

6. https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Book%3A_Art_History_(Boundless)/22%3A_South_and_Southeast_Asia_After_1200_CE/22.06%3A_The_Nayak_Dynasty 

7. https://www.jainfoundation.in/JAINLIBRARY/books/epigraphia_indica_vol_25_032579_std.pdf 

8. https://jambudveep.wordpress.com/tag/invasions-of-south-india/ 

9. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DuSzQYjNI7c  

10. Precolonial India in Practice: Society, Region, and Identity in Medieval Andhra

11. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Maratha-Empire 

12. https://dbpedia.org/page/Maratha_(caste) 

13. https://theobenke.files.wordpress.com/2011/01/the-sudracarasiromani-of-krsna-sesa1.pdf 

14. https://www.jstor.org/stable/44137070 

15. https://andhrapradesh.pscnotes.com/appsc-group-1-mains/paper-i/andhra-pradesh-history/the-reddies/ 

16. https://www.yousigma.com/biographies/The%20Vikramankadevacharita%20(English).pdf

17.  https://www.britannica.com/topic/Chalukya-dynasty

18. https://www.rarebooksocietyofindia.org/book_archive/ID-1605802029.pdf 

19. https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.68789/page/n45/mode/2up?view=theater 

20. https://archive.org/details/forgotten_empire_vijayanagar_-_robert_sewell/page/n59/mode/2up?view=theater (Bukka and Harihara were Kurubhas)

21. https://unacademy.com/content/karnataka-psc/study-material/history/utpala-dynasty/ 

22. https://archive.org/details/RajataranginiVol1 (relevant page is 182)

23. https://archive.org/details/ainiakbarivolum00mubgoog/page/12/mode/2up?view=theater  (by abul fazad, look at page 372)

24. https://indiathedestiny.com/kingdoms/sangama-dynasty/ (vijayanagara)

25. https://www.deccanherald.com/spectrum/the-path-of-water-in-vijayanagara-1052896.html (aquaduct) 

26. https://archive.org/details/EpigraphiaIndicaVol6/page/n197/mode/2up?view=theater (Kota kings of Dhanyakataka pg 147) 

27. https://www.jstor.org/stable/44143896?read-now=1&seq=2#page_scan_tab_contents (orissa tribal kings)

28. https://historyofodisha.in/the-sailodbhavas/ 

29. https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsFarEast/IndiaGondwana.htm (Gonds) 

30. https://www.jstor.org/stable/44140413?read-now=1&seq=2#page_scan_tab_contents (Gonds)

31. http://www.rdunijbpin.org/1317/About-Rani-Durgavati (Rani Durgavati)

32. https://books.google.com/books?id=R4MMAQAAMAAJ&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=rasratnamala (search up “rasratnamala”)

33. https://www.britannica.com/topic/bhakti (bhakti movment)

34. https://www.jstor.org/stable/44155510?read-now=1&seq=3#page_scan_tab_contents (shudras of bhakti movement) 

35. https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Tukaram 

36. https://www.jstor.org/stable/23340362?read-now=1&seq=9#page_scan_tab_contents (KanakaDasa)

37. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Veda (nammalvar)

38. https://www.jstor.org/stable/44145854?read-now=1&seq=5#page_scan_tab_contents (shudras in bhakti, and alvars) 

39. https://ramanujadasan.wordpress.com/tag/thiruppan-alwar/ (thiruppan Alwar)

40. https://www.jstor.org/stable/44147840?read-now=1&seq=7#page_scan_tab_contents (ShudraMunis of Orissa)

41. https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/the-skanda-purana/d/doc502220.html (Skanda Purana on Sacchudras)

42. https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/gautama-dharmas%C5%ABtra/d/doc116310.html#note-e-62989 (Gautama Sdharmasutra)

43. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24663308 (Shudra’s right to yajnas? Mahabharata Anushtubh).

44. https://archive.org/details/tantrarahasyaramanujaed.shamasastrir.ramaswamisastrik.s.universityofbaroda24revised_202003_409_S/page/n20/mode/1up (Badari and others shudra right but rejected by others)

45. https://archive.org/details/mimamsasutra00jaimuoft/page/306/mode/2up (mimamsa sutra pg 306) 

46. https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/bharadvaja-srauta-sutra/d/doc1112883.html (bharadvaja Shrauta sutra on Shudras and lighting yajna fires).

47. https://archive.org/details/vykaraamahbhshy01kielgoog/page/n493/mode/2up?view=theater (Mahabhashya pg 494 on the 2 types of shudras) 

48. https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/the-mahabharata-mohan/d/doc4097.html Mahabharata shudra women begot kakshivant

49. https://www.hinduwebsite.com/sacredscripts/hinduism/upanishads/maitrayana.asp#adh7 (Maitri upanishad, look for 7.8)

50. https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m12/m12b015.htm (Mahabharata Shanti Parva 183 (supposed to be 181))

51. https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/the-skanda-purana/d/doc502222.html (Skanda Purana on Shalagrama Shila worship).

52. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.405186/page/n133/mode/2up?view=theater (Samskara Mayukha see pg 134 of archive book)

53. https://vedicreserve.miu.edu/brahmanas/jaimini_talavakara_brahmana.pdf (pg 289). 

54. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.24397/page/n157/mode/2up?view=theater (pg 99 on Sutas)

55. https://archive.org/details/VayuPuranaG.V.TagarePart1/page/n67/mode/2up?view=theater (Vayu Purana pg 68).

56. https://books.google.com/books?id=x3GuKnZTGG4C&pg=PA36#v=onepage&q&f=false 

57. https://www.jstor.org/stable/44141458